"The Ideological Foundations of Soviet Nationality Policy: Conceptualizing Nationalism within the Framework of Marxism-Leninism"

Abstract

Despite enduring economic crises, wartime devastation, and political terror, the Soviet Union managed to survive tremendous challenges. Yet, the fundamental threat to Soviet stability throughout its seventy-year history, preceded by centuries of Tsarist rule, was the persistent rise of nationalism. The demands for autonomy, sovereignty, and eventual independence emerged with increasing intensity, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Soviet state. This development, though surprising to both Soviet citizens and Western analysts, exposed the limitations of the USSR’s multinational structure.

The Soviet Union comprised over 100 ethnic groups, the majority of which regarded Soviet territory as their homeland. Although ethnic federalism formally provided autonomy and cultural rights, political and economic power remained centralized. The USSR promoted a policy of "affirmative action" for nationalities, offering education, employment, and symbolic representation, yet expected gradual assimilation under a dominant Soviet (often Russified) identity.

Soviet leaders, particularly Lenin, sought to balance regional autonomy with centralized control. This paradox manifested in the principle of a “socialist in content, nationalist in form” state. National republics were granted the theoretical right to secede, but in practice, this was never intended to be exercised. Instead, loyalty was secured through elite co-optation and redistribution of economic resources.

While Marxist ideology downplayed nationalism as a bourgeois distraction, national identity proved to be a potent force, especially in the context of imperial legacies and uneven development. The post-Soviet transitions confirmed the enduring strength of nationalist sentiments. Although newly independent states embraced multiethnic constitutions, most were effectively nation-states in form and function.

Ultimately, the Soviet nationalities policy failed to reconcile the tensions between ideological internationalism and practical nationalism. Its collapse underscores the difficulty of managing ethnic diversity in a centralized authoritarian framework and highlights the enduring political power of national identity in the modern era.