Factors Influencing Humoral Immunity Post COVID-19 Vaccination in Georgia
Downloads
COVID-19 vaccines have reduced severe disease and mortality worldwide. However, humoral immunity wanes over time, particularly against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection (Andrews et al., 2022; Feikin et al., 2022). Vaccine effectiveness (VE) against symptomatic infection declines from ~53% one month post-vaccination to 14% at six months, while protection against severe disease remains above 70% (Tartof et al., 2021; Lin et al., 2022). Hybrid immunity—vaccination with prior infection—provides stronger and more durable protection (Chemaitelly et al., 2023; Pilz et al., 2022). Demographic and clinical factors, including age, comorbidities, and immunosuppression, influence responses, while sex differences are minor (Goel et al., 2021; Griffin, 2023). Genetic factors, particularly Rhesus (Rh) status, may shape humoral responses (Alavi et al., 2023; Musa et al., 2023). In Georgia, plasma donor data confirmed vaccination, hybrid immunity, and Rh positivity as predictors of protective titers. These findings support universal vaccination, timely boosters, and targeted protection.
Downloads
Alavi, S. M., Sadeghi, R., Shahrabi-Farahani, F., et al. (2023). Association between ABO/Rh blood group system and antibody responses to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination. Journal of Medical Virology, 95(12), e28918. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.28918
Al-Madani, M., Alnasser, S., & Alghamdi, S. (2023). ABO and Rh blood groups in relation to COVID-19 susceptibility and severity: A comprehensive review. Cureus, 15(1), e33301. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.33301
Andrews, N., Tessier, E., Stowe, J., et al. (2022). Duration of protection against mild and severe disease by COVID-19 vaccines. New England Journal of Medicine, 386(4), 340–350. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2115481
Chemaitelly, H., Ayoub, H. H., Coyle, P., et al. (2023). Protection from hybrid immunity against symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and severe COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-regression. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 23(5), 556–567. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(23)00115-9
COVID-19 Host Genetics Initiative. (2021). Mapping the human genetic architecture of COVID-19. Nature, 600(7889), 472–477. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03767-x
Feikin, D. R., Higdon, M. M., Abu-Raddad, L. J., et al. (2022). Duration of vaccine effectiveness against COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-regression. The Lancet, 399(10328), 924–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00152-0
Goel, R. R., Painter, M. M., Lundgreen, K. A., et al. (2021). Durable SARS-CoV-2 B cell immunity after mRNA vaccination. Cell, 184(5), 1201–1213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.050
Griffin, S. (2023). COVID-19: Vaccine immunity against symptomatic infection wanes within months, review finds. BMJ, 380, p415. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.p415
Harrison, A. G., Lin, T., & Wang, P. (2023). Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 immunity and the role of hybrid immunity in durable protection. Nature Reviews Immunology, 23(9), 555–568. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-023-00890-4
Khoury, D. S., Cromer, D., Reynaldi, A., et al. (2021). Neutralizing antibody levels are highly predictive of immune protection from symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nature Medicine, 27(7), 1205–1211. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01377-8
Lin, D. Y., Gu, Y., Wheeler, B., et al. (2022). Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines over a 9-month period in North Carolina. New England Journal of Medicine, 386(10), 933–941. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2117128
Liu, Y., Ma, H., Zhang, Y., et al. (2023). ABO blood group and risk of COVID-19 infection: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Transfusion Medicine and Hemotherapy, 50(2), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1159/000529064
Musa, S., Al-Suwaidan, H., & Al-Qahtani, A. (2023). Rhesus blood group and COVID-19 outcomes: Evidence from a multi-center retrospective cohort. Frontiers in Medicine, 10, 1152371. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1152371
Pilz, S., Theiler-Schwetz, V., Trummer, C., et al. (2022). SARS-CoV-2 reinfections: Overview of efficacy and duration of natural and hybrid immunity. Environmental Research, 209, 112911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.112911
Pouwels, K. B., Pritchard, E., Matthews, P. C., et al. (2021). Waning of vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the UK after two doses of BNT162b2 or ChAdOx1. The Lancet, 398(10310), 896–907. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02241-8
Tartof, S. Y., Slezak, J. M., Fischer, H., et al. (2021). Effectiveness of mRNA BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccine up to 6 months in a large integrated health system in the USA: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet, 398(10309), 1407–1416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02183-8
Weinberger, B., Herndler-Brandstetter, D., Schwanninger, A., Weiskopf, D., & Grubeck-Loebenstein, B. (2008). Biology of immune responses to vaccines in elderly persons. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 46(7), 1078–1084. https://doi.org/10.1086/529197
World Health Organization. (2022). Global COVID-19 vaccination progress report. WHO. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-vaccines-progress-2022
Copyright (c) 2026 Georgian Scientists
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
